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Representative image for P-51 Mustang
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P-51 Mustang Image Gallery (there are a total of 74 images)
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Aircraft description (most info is taken from Wikipedia)
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The North American P-51 Mustang was an American long-range single-seat fighter aircraft that entered service with Allied air forces in the middle years of World War II. The P-51 became one of the conflict's most successful and recognizable aircraft. The definitive version of the single-seat fighter was powered by the Packard V-1650-3, a two-stage two-speed supercharged 12-cylinder Packard-built version of the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, and armed with six .50 caliber (12.7 mm) Browning M2 machine guns.
The P-51 flew most of its wartime missions as a bomber escort in raids over Germany, helping ensure Allied air superiority over Germany from early 1944. It also saw service against Japanese air forces in the Pacific War. The Mustang began the Korean War as the United Nations' main fighter but was supplanted as a fighter by jets early in the conflict, being relegated to a ground attack role. Nevertheless, it remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s. Despite being economical to produce, the Mustang was a well-made and rugged aircraft. Like most other fighters that used a liquid-cooled engine, its weakness was a coolant system that could be punctured by a single bullet. Post-World War II and the Korean conflict, many Mustangs were converted for civilian use, especially air racing. Genesis Shortly after World War II began in 1939, the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Self had sat on the (British) Air Council Sub-committee on Supply (or "Supply Committee") along with Sir Wilfrid Freeman, who as the "Air Member for Development and Production" was given overall responsibility for RAF production and research and development in 1938. One of Self's many tasks was to organize the manufacture of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time, the choice was very limited. None of the US aircraft already flying met European standards; only the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk came close. The Curtiss plant was running at capacity, so even that aircraft was in short supply. North American Aviation (NAA) President Dutch Kindleberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, the B-25 Mitchell. Instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under licence from Curtiss. (North American was already supplying their Harvard trainer to the RAF but were otherwise underutilized.) Kindleberger replied that NAA could have a better aircraft with the same engine in the air in less time. As executive head of the British Ministry of Aircraft Production, Freeman ordered 320 aircraft in March 1940. On 26 June 1940, MAP awarded a contract to Packard to build modified versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines under licence; in September, MAP increased the first production order by 300. Design and development The result of the MAP order was the NA-73X project (from March 1940). The design was in keeping with the best conventional practice of the era, but included two new features. One was a new NACA-designed laminar flow wing, which was associated with very low drag at high speeds. Another was the use of a new radiator design that used the heated air exiting the radiator as a form of jet thrust in what is referred to as the "Meredith Effect." Because North American lacked a suitable wind tunnel, they were forced to use Curtiss's facility. This led to some controversy over whether the Mustang's aerodynamics were developed by North American's engineer Edgar Schmued or by Curtiss, although many authors dismiss the allegation of stolen technology. The USAAC could block any sales they considered interesting, and this appeared to be the case for the NA-73. An arrangement was eventually reached where the RAF would get its planes, in exchange for NA providing two more cost-free to the USAAC. The prototype NA-73X was rolled out just 117 days after the order was placed, and first flew on 26 October 1940, just 178 days after the order had been placed - an incredibly short gestation period. In general, the prototype handled well and the internal arrangement allowed for an impressive fuel load. It was armed with four .50 M2 Browning (12.7 mm) guns and two or four (clarification needed) .30 M2 Browning (7.62 mm) guns. In comparison, the British Spitfire Vb carried two 20 mm cannon and four .303 machine guns. 1. Allison-engined Mustangs a) Mustang I/P-51 It was quickly evident that performance, although exceptional up to 15,000 feet, was inadequate at higher altitudes. This deficiency was due largely to the mechanically supercharged Allison V-1710 engine, which lacked power at higher altitudes. Prior to the Mustang project, the USAAC had Allison concentrate primarily on turbochargers in concert with General Electric, and these proved to be exceptional in the P-38 Lightning and other high-altitude aircraft. Most of the other uses for the Allison were for low-altitude designs, where a simple supercharger would be sufficient. The turbocharger proved impractical for fitting into the Mustang, and it was forced to use the inadequate superchargers available. Still, the Mustang's advanced aerodynamics showed to advantage, as the Mustang I was about 30 mph faster than contemporary Curtiss P-40 fighters using the same Allison powerplant. The Mustang I was 30 mph faster than the Spitfire Mk VC at 5,000 feet and 35 mph faster at 15,000 ft, despite the British plane's more powerful engine. [2] The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters named Mustang I by the British. Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAF were designated XP-51. A second British contract called for 300 more (NA-83) Mustang I fighters. In September 1940, 150 aircraft designated NA-91 by North American were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named the "Apache" although this designation was soon dropped and the RAF name, "Mustang," adopted instead. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. They were equipped with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano-Suiza Mk II cannon instead of machine guns. A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as photo reconnaissance aircraft and designated F-6A. The British would fit a number of Mustang Is with similar equipment. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with the Packard built Merlin engine and were designated by North American as model NA-101 and by the USAAF initially as the XP-78, but re-designated to XP-51B. About 20 of the Mustang Mk I were delivered to the RAF and made their combat debut on 10 May 1942. With their long range and excellent low-level performance, they were employed effectively for tactical reconnaissance and ground-attack duties over the English Channel, but thought to be of limited value as fighters due to poor performance above 15,000 feet. The Mustang Mk IA was identical to the Mustang Mk I except that the machine guns were removed and replaced with four wing mounted 20 mm cannons. b) A-36 Apache/Invader At the same time the USAAC was becoming more interested in ground attack planes and had a new version ordered as the A-36 Apache which included six .50 M2 Browning machine guns, dive brakes and could carry two 500 pound (230 kg) bombs. In early 1942, the USAAF ordered 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A (NA-97). This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber). 2. Merlin-engined Mustangs a) P-51B and P-51C In April 1942, the RAF's Air Fighter Development Unit (AFDU) tested the Mustang at higher altitudes and found its performance inadequate, but their CO was so impressed with its maneuverability and low-altitude speeds that he invited Ronnie Harker from Rolls-Royce's Flight Test establishment to fly it. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Merlin 61 would substantially improve performance and started converting five aircraft as the Mustang X. Ministry official Sir W.R. Freeman lobbied vociferously for Merlin-powered Mustangs, insisting two of the five experimental Mustang Xs be handed over to Carl Spaatz for trials and evaluation by the US 8th Air Force in Britain.[3] The high-altitude performance was astonishing: the Mustang X AM208 reached 433 mph at 22,000 ft and AL975 tested at an absolute ceiling of 40,600 ft. [4]After sustained lobbying at the highest level, American production of a North American-designed Mustang with the Packard Merlin V-1650 engine replacing the Allison engine was started in early 1943. The pairing of the P-51 airframe and Merlin engine was designated P-51B or P-51C (B (NA-102) being manufactured at Inglewood, California, and C (NA-103) at a new plant in Dallas, Texas, in operation by summer 1943). The RAF named these models Mustang III. In performance tests, the P-51B achieved 441 mph/709.7 km/h at 25,000 ft (7.600 m) and subsequent extended range with the use of drop tanks enabled the Merlin-powered Mustang version to be introduced as a bomber escort. P-51Bs and Cs started to arrive in England in August and October 1943. The P-51B/C versions were sent to 15 fighter groups that were part of the 8th and 9th Air Forces in England, and the 12th and 15th in Italy (the southern part of Italy was under Allied control by late 1943). Other deployments included the China Burma India Theater (CBI). Allied strategists quickly exploited the long-range fighter as a bomber escort. It was largely due to the P-51 that daylight bombing raids deep into German territory became possible without prohibitive bomber losses in late 1943. A number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo reconnaissance and designated F-6C. b) P-51D and P-51K One of the few remaining complaints with the Merlin-powered aircraft was a poor rearward view. This was a common problem in most fighter designs of the era, which had only been realized as a problem by the British after combat during the Battle of Britain proved the value of an all-around view. In order to improve the view from the Mustang, at least partially, the British had field-modified some Mustangs with fishbowl-shaped canopies called "Malcolm Hoods". Eventually all Mk.IIIs, along with some American P-51B/Cs, were equipped with Malcolm Hoods. A better solution to the problem was to incorporate a "bubble" canopy. Originally developed as part of the Miles M.20 project, these newer canopies were in the process of being adapted to most British designs, eventually appearing on late-model Spitfires, Typhoons and Tempests. North American adapted several NA-106 prototypes with a bubble canopy, cutting away the decking behind the cockpit to allow looking directly to the rear. This led to the the production P-51D (NA-109), considered the definitive Mustang. A common misconception is that cutting down the rear fuselage to mount the bubble canopy reduced stability, requiring a dorsal fin to be added to the forward base of the vertical tail. Actually, both the B/C and later D/K models had a low speed handling problem that could result in an involuntary "snap-roll" under certain conditions of air speed, angle of attack, gross weight and center of gravity. Several crash reports tell of P-51Bs and Cs crashing because horizontal stabilizers were torn off during maneuvering. While some existing aircraft do not have the dorsal extension fitted, many were equipped at some point in their service or refurbishment with a taller tail, which provided a similar increase in yaw stability. Also, civilian-owned examples often have newer, lighter radios, an absence of external munitions and drop tanks, removed guns and armor plate and an empty or removed fuselage tank - reducing the need for the dorsal fin. Among other modifications, armament was increased with the addition of another two M2 machine guns, bringing the total to six. The inner pair of machine guns had 400 rounds per gun, and the outer two pair had 270 rounds per gun, for a total of 1,880 rounds. In previous P-51s, the M2s were mounted at angles that led to frequent complaints of jamming during combat maneuvers. The new arrangement allowed the M2s to be mounted in a more standard manner that remedied most of the jamming problems. The .50 caliber Browning machine guns, although not firing an explosive projectile, had excellent ballistics and proved adequate against the Fw 190 and Bf 109 fighters that were the main USAAF opponents at this time. Later models had under-wing rocket pylons added to carry up to 10 rockets per plane. The P-51D became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A Dallas-built version of the P-51D, designated the P-51K, was equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller, as well as a larger, differently configured canopy and other minor alterations (the vent panel was different). The hollow-bladed Aeroproducts propeller was unreliable with dangerous vibrations at full throttle due to manufacturing problems and was eventually replaced by the Hamilton Standard. The photo versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectfully. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the D model and Mustang IVA to K models. The P-51D/K started arriving in Europe in mid-1944 and quickly became the primary USAAF fighter in Europe. It was produced in larger numbers than any other Mustang variant. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, roughly half of all operational Mustangs were still B or C models. 3. The "lightweight" Mustangs a) XP-51F, XP-51G and XP-51J The USAAF required airframes built to their acceleration standard of 8.33 g (82 m/s²), a higher load factor than that used by British standard of 5.33 g (52 m/s²) for their fighters. Reducing the load factor to 5.33 would allow weight to be removed, and both the USAAF and the RAF were interested in the potential performance boost. In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to re-design the P-51D as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disk brakes, and a larger canopy. The designation XP-51F was assigned to prototypes powered with V-1650 engines (a small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V) and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines. A third lightweight prototype powered by an Allison V-1710-119 engine was added to the development program. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. Since the engine was insufficiently developed, the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. None of these experimental "lightweights" went into production. b) P-51H The P-51H (NA-126) was the final production Mustang, embodying the experience gained in the development of the XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, with minor differences as the NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak as one of the fastest production piston engine fighters to see service. The P-51H used the new V-1650-9 engine, a version of the Merlin that included Simmons automatic supercharger boost contro with water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2218 hp (1,500 kW). Differences between the P-51D included lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, which greatly reduced the tendency to yaw. The canopy resembled the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was also improved. With the new airframe several hundred pounds lighter, the extra power and a more streamlined radiator, the P-51H was among the fastest propeller fighters ever, able to reach 487 mph (784 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m). The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N Thunderbolt as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan with 2,000 ordered to be manufactured at Inglewood. Production was just ramping up with 555 delivered when the war ended. Production serial numbers:
Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat in World War II, and in postwar service, most were issued to reserve units. One aircraft was provided to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was designated BuNo 09064 and used by the US Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H was not used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, since the P-51D was available in much larger numbers and was a proven commodity. Many of the aerodynamic advances of the P-51 (including the laminar flow wing) were carried over to North American's jet-powered next generation of fighters, the Navy FJ Fury and Air Force F-86 Sabre. The wings, empennage and canopy of the straight-winged first variant of the Fury (the FJ-1) and the unbuilt preliminary prototypes of the P-86/F-86 strongly resembled those of the Mustang before the aircraft were modified with swept-wing design. 4. F-51 and RF-51 In 1948, the designation P-51 (P for pursuit) was changed to F-51 (F for fighter) and the existing F designator for photographic reconnaissance aircraft was dropped because of a new designation scheme throughout the USAF. During the Korean War, F-51s, though obsolete as fighters, were used as tactical bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Because of its lighter structure and less availability of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H was not used in Korea. With the planes being used for ground attack, their performance was less of a concern than their ability to carry a load. Aircraft still in service in the USAF or Air National Guard (ANG) when the system was changed included: F-51B, F-51D, F-51K, RF-51D (formerly F-6D), RF-51K (formerly F-6K), and TRF-51D (two-seat trainer conversions of F-6Ds). The F-51 was adopted by many air forces, the Israeli Air Force using them in the War of Independence (1948) and in Operation Kadesh (1956). The last Mustangs were retired from USAF/Air National Guard service in 1957 but remained in use as test beds/chase aircraft into the 1960s and later. Many remain airworthy across the globe, in private hands. A few of those have been modified for extra speed for competing in air racing. Production
Operational service At the Casablanca Conference, the Allies formulated the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) plan for "round-the-clock" bombing by the RAF at night and the USAAF by day. American pre-war bombardment doctrine held that large formations of heavy bombers flying at high altitudes would be able to defend themselves against enemy interceptors with minimal fighter escort, so that precision daylight bombing using the Norden bombsight would be effective. Both the RAF and Luftwaffe had attempted daylight bombing and discontinued it, believing advancements in single-engine fighters made multi-engined bombers vulnerable to interception and destruction, contrary to Douhet's thesis. The RAF had worried about this in the mid-1930s and had decided to produce an all night-bomber force, but initially began bombing operations by day. The Germans used extensive daylight bombing during the Battle of Britain in preparation for a possible invasion. The Luftwaffe found daylight bombing raids sustained high casualties and soon switched to night bombing (see The Blitz). Bomber Command followed suit in its subsequent raids over Germany. Initial USAAF efforts were inconclusive because of the limited scale. In June 1943, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe before the invasion of Europe, putting the CBO into full implementation. The Eighth Air Force heavy bomber force conducted a series of deep penetration raids into Germany beyond the range of available escort fighters. German fighter reaction was fierce and bomber losses were severe — 20 percent in an October 14 attack on the German ball-bearing industry. This made it impossible to continue raids deep into Germany without adequate fighter escort. The Lockheed P-38 Lightning had the range to escort the bombers, but was available in very limited numbers in the European Theater due to its degraded performance at frigid high altitudes and its Allison engines proving difficult to maintain. With the extensive use of the P-38 in the Pacific war where its twin engines were deemed vital to long-range "over-water" operations, nearly all European-based P-38 units converted to the P-51 in 1944. The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was capable of meeting the Luftwaffe on even terms, but did not then have sufficient range. The Mustang changed all that. In general terms, the Mustang was at least as simple as other aircraft of its era. It used a single well-understood and reliable engine, and had internal space for a huge fuel load. With external fuel tanks, it could protect the bombers all the way to Germany and back. Enough P-51s became available to the 8th and 9th Air Forces in the winter of 1943-44, and when the Pointblank offensive resumed in early 1944, matters changed dramatically. The P-51 proved perfect for the task with the Eighth Air Force immediately beginning to switch its fighter groups to the Mustang, first exchanging arriving P-47 groups for those of the Ninth Air Force using P-51s, then gradually converting its Thunderbolt and Lightning groups until eventually 14 of its 15 groups flew the Mustang. Luftwaffe pilots attempted to avoid US fighters by massing in huge numbers well in front of the bombers, attacking in a single pass, then breaking off the attack, allowing escorting fighters little time to react. While not always successful in avoiding contact with escort (as the tremendous loss of German pilots in the spring of 1944 indicates), the threat of mass attacks, and later the "company front" (eight abreast) assaults by armored sturmgruppe Fw 190s, brought an urgency to attacking the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found. The P-51, particularly with the advent of the K-14 gunsight and the development of "Clobber Colleges" for the in-theater training of fighter pilots in the fall of 1944, was a decisive element in Allied countermeasures against the Jagdverbände. In May 1944, the fighters of Allied Tactical Air Forces were granted permission to "free-hunt:" roaming away from the bombers after providing fighter cover and attacking German planes at Luftwaffe airfields. The numerical superiority of the USAAF fighters, superb flying characteristics of the P-51 and pilot proficiency crippled the Luftwaffe. As a result, the fighter threat to US, and later British bombers, was greatly diminished by the summer of 1944. USAAF Tactical Air Forces then concentrated on ground targets, trains, military equipment, etc., in preparation for and support of the Allied invasion of France. P-51s also distinguished themselves when challenging advanced enemy rockets and aircraft. A P-51B/C with high-octane fuel was fast enough to pursue the V-1s launched toward London. The Me 163 Komet rocket interceptors and Me 262 jet fighters were considerably faster than the P-51 but not invulnerable. Chuck Yeager, flying a P-51D, was one of the first American pilots to shoot down a Me 262 when he surprised it during its landing approach. The Eighth, Ninth and Fifteenth Air Forces' P-51 groups, all but three of which flew another type before converting to the Mustang, claimed some 4,950 aircraft shot down (about half of all USAAF claims in the European theater) and 4,131 destroyed on the ground. Losses were about 840 aircraft. One of these groups, the Eighth Air Force's 4th Fighter Group, was the overall top-scoring fighter group in Europe with 1,016 enemy aircraft destroyed, 550 in aerial combat and 466 on the ground [3]. In aerial combat, the top-scoring P-51 units (both of which exclusively flew Mustangs) were the 357th Fighter Group of the Eighth Air Force with 595 air-to-air combat victories, and the Ninth Air Force's 354th Fighter Group with 701, which made it the top scoring outfit in aerial combat of all fighter groups of any type. P-51s were deployed in the Far East later in 1944, operating in both close-support and escort missions. Post-World War II In the aftermath of World War II, the USAAF consolidated much of its wartime combat force and selected the P-51 as a "standard" piston engine fighter while other types such as the P-38 and P-47 were withdrawn or given substantially reduced roles. However, as more advanced jet fighters (P-80 and P-84) were being introduced, the P-51 was relegated to secondary status. In 1947, the newly-formed USAF Strategic Air Command employed Mustangs (redesignated the F-51) alongside F-6 Mustangs and F-82 Twin Mustangs, due to their range capabilities. They remained in service from 1946 through 1951. By 1950, although Mustangs continued in service with the USAF and many other nations after the war, the majority of the USAF's Mustangs had been surplussed or transferred to the Reserve and the Air National Guard (ANG). At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang once again proved its usefulness. With the availability of F-51Ds in service and in storage, a substantial number were shipped via aircraft carriers to the combat zone for use initially by both the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) and USAF. Rather than employing them as interceptors or "pure" fighters, the F-51 was given the task of ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs. After the initial invasion from North Korea, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan, and F-51Ds could hit targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jet fighters could not. A major concern over the vulnerability of the cooling system was realized in heavy losses due to ground fire. Mustangs continued flying with USAF, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF), South African Air Force (SAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until they were largely replaced by Republic F-84 and Grumman Panther jet fighter-bombers in 1953. The South Africans continued to fly their 95 Mustangs in Korea but lost many of them by 1952. F-51s flew in the USAF Reserve and ANG until they were finally phased out in 1957. General characteristics ( P-51D Mustang )
Performance ( P-51D Mustang )
Armament ( P-51D Mustang )
General characteristics ( P-51H Mustang )
Performance ( P-51H Mustang )
Armament ( P-51H Mustang )
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